What is Virtue?
A virtue is a quality or a characteristic considered morally good and therefore valued as a foundational principle of a good moral being. Virtue is a mark of moral excellence.
The quality of being virtuous refers to a behavior that shows the presence of high moral standards and knowing what is right and wrong. In contradiction or opposition to virtue lies vice.
The western concept of virtue has parallels in Eastern traditions, like the Chinese concept of merit and the four brahmavira or the Divine States in Buddhism.
The Concept of Virtue in Ancient Traditions
Ancient Egypt
In ancient Egyptian religion, Ma’at was the goddess of truth, order, balance, morality, law, and justice. She was represented as regulating mortals' and deities' stars and actions.
Greco-Roman Period
Several philosophers in Greco-Roman antiquity theorized about the concept of virtue.
Platonic Virtue
Plato listed four cardinal virtues, namely:
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Prudence - It is the ability to assess the proper course of action to be taken in a particular situation at the appropriate time.
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Fortitude - It is also understood as strength, courage, endurance, and the ability to confront uncertainty, fear, and intimidation.
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Temperance - It is also known as restraint or the practice of self-control. Plato considered this to be an essential virtue.
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Justice - The Greek word also has the meaning of righteousness.
Aristotelian Virtue
In Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle defined virtue as the point between a trait’s excess and deficiency. According to him, the point of greatest virtue lay at the golden mean, which could be closer to one extreme than the other. For Aristotle, Virtue means excellence at being human.
Epicurean Virtue
Epicureans believed in the rational pursuit of pleasure through the aid of virtues. They thought the emotions and habits related to vice and virtue were based on true and false beliefs. Adjusting one’s thoughts to nature can develop a virtuous character and live pleasantly.
Pyrrhonist Virtue
Pyrrhonists believed that by suspending one’s judgment and renouncing dogmatic beliefs, one could live with virtue. Roman Virtues
The word ‘virtue’ comes from the Latin term ‘virtus.’ It is associated with the ideas of honor, manliness, the worthiness of respect, and the civic duty of citizens and soldiers. Virtus was the personification of the Roman deity of bravery and military strength.
Romans of good character or virtue were expected to pass on their virtues through the generations as part of the ancestral tradition of mos maiorum, which defined Roman-ness.
Virtues were divided between public and private life, according to their traditions. Roman virtues included abundantia or prosperity, auctoritas or spiritual authority, dignity and discipline, humanity, nobility, justice, and truthfulness, among others.
Ancient India
Ancient Indian scriptures generally refer to the concept of virtue through the ideas of dharma or Aram, understood as divine virtue. However, the Tamil philosopher Valluvar described virtue as a way of life rather than a spiritual observance. Valluvar believed justice to be a product of virtue.
Chivalric Virtues in Medieval Europe
In the 8th century, Charlemagne, the Holy Roman Emperor, published a list of knightly virtues. Some of the virtues included in this list were:
- Love God
- Give alms to the poor
- Help the oppressed
- Render righteous judgment
- Be humble and kind
Virtue in Religions
Virtue in Christianity
Within Christianity, the three primary virtues are hope, faith, and love, mentioned in 1 Corinthians 13:13. Love is described as the greatest of the three virtues. The Christian Virtue of love is mainly understood as charity, contrasted with God’s love.
There are also seven heavenly virtues, including the four classic cardinal virtues of courage, prudence, justice, and temperance.
Virtue in Islam
In Islam, the Holy Quran is considered the literal word of God and the definitive model of virtue. Prophet Muhammad is believed to be the ideal personification of virtue. In foundational Islamic belief, virtue is understood as the active submission to God by the community as a whole.
Quran 3:110 mentions that believers should ‘enjoin that which is virtuous and forbid that which is vicious’ in every facet of life. Islam teaches that it is humans' moral responsibility to submit to God’s will.
Virtue is called thawab – spiritual merit of reward – in Islam. It is also described as Fadi or bounty, taqwa or piety, and salah or righteousness.
Virtue in Buddhism
The practice of Buddhism described in the Noble Eightfold Path can be understood as a list of the following virtues:
- Right View - It is the realization of the Four Noble Truths.
- Right Mindfulness - It refers to the mental ability to see things with clear consciousness and perceive things as they are.
- Right Concentration - Right concentration means the mind’s totality and one-pointedness.
The four brahmavira, or the ‘Divine States’ of Buddhism, are closer to the Western understanding of virtue:
- Maitri - It is the quality of loving kindness towards all beings, without any exception.
- Karuna - Karuna means compassion for all living beings to be free from suffering.
- Mudita - It is the selfless and sympathetic joy in the success of oneself and others.
- Upeksha - Upeksha means the ability to accept both loss and gain, success and failure equally for others and oneself. Having upeksha means having a tranquil state of mind where their emotions or delusions do not overpower one.
Virtue in Daoism
Virtue or ‘de’ is an essential concept in Chinese philosophy. In early Confucianism, Virtue was understood as ren or humanity, xiao or filial piety, and li or proper conduct. The Daoist understanding of virtue is more sublime and refers to the quality that an individual attains by following the Way of the Dao.
Symbols like plum blossoms, orchids, bamboo, and chrysanthemum represent Virtue in Chinese culture.
Virtue in Hinduism
In Hindu philosophical understanding, virtue leads to Punya or goof living, while vices lead to pap or sin. The virtues make up a dharmic life meaning an ethical, moral, and virtuous life.
Some virtues mentioned in the Manusamhita are dhriti or courage, Kshama or patience, saucha or inner purity, and Satyam or truthfulness.
Contemporary Understanding of Virtue
In contemporary understanding, virtues are often identified as good or moral emotions like love, joy, kindness, and faith. Positive psychology, a branch of modern psychology, studies what makes life worth living, particularly individual and societal well-being. Positive psychologists often categorize virtues into three categories, namely cognitive strength, social strengths, and temperance strengths.